Assessment of the life cycle of alkali-activated cements: a current overview
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.19123/Keywords:
alkali-activated cements, life cycle assessment, sustainability, environmental impact, geopolymersAbstract
Growing concerns about greenhouse gas emissions have driven the search for sustainable alternatives in the construction industry, which is responsible for a portion of these emissions. Portland cement, which is widely used, contributes 5% to 8% of global CO₂ emissions due to its production process. In this scenario, alkali-activated cements emerge as a viable solution, as they reduce CO₂ emissions and allow the incorporation of industrial waste as precursors. This study reviews the Life Cycle Assessment of alkali-activated cements, analyzing their environmental impact categories, the different types of alkali-activated materials, and the role of alkaline activators in the sustainability of the process. The research was conducted through a qualitative and descriptive literature review, covering articles published between 2020 and 2025. The results indicate that alkali-activated cements can reduce global warming potential by up to 40%, in addition to mitigating impacts such as terrestrial acidification (35%), eutrophication (30%) and human toxicity (26%). However, conventional alkaline activators, such as sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide, still have environmental impacts, being responsible for up to 85% of associated emissions. Replacing these activators with waste rich in silica and alkalis, such as red mud and agro-industrial ash, demonstrates the potential to reduce impacts and production costs. It is concluded that the optimization of production processes and the adoption of alternative alkaline activators are necessary strategies to enable the application of alkali-activated cements on a large scale, consolidating them as a sustainable alternative to Portland cement.
References
ABDULKAREEM, M.; HAVUKAINEN, J.; NUORTILA-JOKINEN, J.; HORTTANAINEN, M. Life cycle assessment of a low-height noise barrier for railway traffic noise. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 323, p. 129169, 2021.
ALGHAMDI, H.; SHOUKRY, H.; ABDEL-GAWWAD, H.A.; HOSSAIN, M.U.; ABADEL, A.A.; ELTAWIL, K.A.; YOUSSEF, A.S. Development of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement-Based Lightweight Bricks Incorporating Waste Rockwool: A Step into Leading the Way in Low-Carbon Bricks. Buildings, v. 14, n. 12, p. 3937, 2024.
ALHASSAN, M.; ALKHAWALDEH, A.; BETOUSH, N.; ALKHAWALDEH, M.; HUSEIEN, G.F.; AMAIREH, L.; ELREFAE, A. Life cycle assessment of the sustainability of alkali-activated binders. Biomimetics, v. 8, n. 1, p. 58, 2023.
ALVARADO, A.; BAYKARA, H.; RIOFRIO, A.; CORNEJO, M.; MERCHAN-MERCHAN, W. Preparation, characterization, electrical conductivity, and life cycle assessment of carbon nanofibers-reinforced Ecuadorian natural zeolite-based geopolymer composites. Heliyon, v. 10, n. 6, 2024.
AMARI, S.; DARESTANI, M.; MILLAR, G.J.; SAMALI, B.; STROUNINA, E. Engineering and life cycle assessment (LCA) of sustainable zeolite-based geopolymer incorporating blast furnace slag. Sustainability, v. 16, n. 1, p. 440, 2024.
BAYKARA, H.; RIOFRIO, A.; CORNEJO, M. Preparation, characterization, and environmental impact analysis of natural Ecuadorian zeolite tuff-based silicoaluminophosphate geopolymer. Construction and Building Materials, v. 438, p. 137126, 2024.
BIANCO, I.; TOMOS, B.A.D.; VINAI, R. Analysis of the environmental impacts of alkali-activated concrete produced with waste glass-derived silicate activator–A LCA study. Journal of cleaner production, v. 316, p. 128383, 2021.
BOURZIK, O.; BABA, K.; AKKOURI, N.; MESHRAM, R.B.; BOUYAKHSASS, R.; NOUNAH, A. Life cycle assessment and thermophysical properties of a fly ash-based geopolymer containing drinking water treatment sludge. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, v. 30, n. 56, p. 118989-119000, 2023.
CHOO, H.; LIM, S.; LEE, W.; LEE, C. Compressive strength of one-part alkali activated fly ash using red mud as alkali supplier. Construction and Building Materials, v. 125, p. 21-28, 2016.
COLANGELO, F.; FARINA, I.; TRAVAGLIONI, M.; SALZANO, C.; CIOFFI, R.; PETRILLO, A. Eco-efficient industrial waste recycling for the manufacturing of fibre reinforced innovative geopolymer mortars: Integrated waste management and green product development through LCA. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 312, p. 127777, 2021.
DANISH, A.; TORRES, A.S.; MORO, C.; SALIM, M.U. Hope or hype? Evaluating the environmental footprint of reclaimed fly ash in geopolymer production. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, v. 205, p. 107564, 2024.
ESPARHAM, A.; VATIN, N.I.; KHARUN, M.; HEMATIBAHAR, M. A study of modern eco-friendly composite (geopolymer) based on blast furnace slag compared to conventional concrete using the life cycle assessment approach. Infrastructures, v. 8, n. 3, p. 58, 2023.
FERNANDO, S.; GUNASEKARA, C.; LAW, D.W., NASVI, M.C.M.; SETUNGE, S.; DISSANAYAKE, R.; ROBERT, D. Environmental evaluation and economic analysis of fly ash-rice husk ash blended alkali-activated bricks. Environmental impact assessment review, v. 95, p. 106784, 2022.
GARCES, J.I.T.; DOLLENTE, I.J.; BELTRAN, A.B.; TAN, R.R.; PROMENTILLA, M.A.B. Life cycle assessment of self-healing geopolymer concrete. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, v. 4, p. 100147, 2021.
GHADIR, P.; ZAMANIAN, M.; MAHBUBI-MOTLAGH., SABERIAN, M., LI, J.; RANJBAR, N. Shear strength and life cycle assessment of volcanic ash-based geopolymer and cement stabilized soil: a comparative study. Transp Geotech 31: 100639 [em linha]. 2021.
GÜNTHER, H. Pesquisa qualitativa versus pesquisa quantitativa: esta é a questão?. Psicologia: teoria e pesquisa, v. 22, p. 201, 2006.
KUL, A.; OZEL, B.F.; OZCELIKCI, E.; GUNAL, M.F.; ULUGOL, H.; YILDIRIM, G.; SAHMARAN, M. Characterization and life cycle assessment of geopolymer mortars with masonry units and recycled concrete aggregates assorted from construction and demolition waste. Journal of Building Engineering, v. 78, p. 107546, 2023.
LUCA, A.; ANTONIO, G.; GIADA, L.S.; MANUELA, L.F.C.; ROSA, M. Life cycle assessment of a new industrial process for sustainable construction materials. Ecological Indicators, v. 148, p. 110042, 2023.
MESHRAM, R.B.; KUMAR, S. Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of geopolymer cement manufacturing with Portland cement in Indian context. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, v. 19, n. 6, p. 4791-4802, 2022.
MIR, N.; KHAN, S.A.; KUL, A.; SAHIN, O.; OZCELIKCI, E.; SAHMARAN, M.; KOC, M. Construction and demolition waste-based self-healing geopolymer composites for the built environment: An environmental profile assessment and optimization. Construction and Building Materials, v. 369, p. 130520, 2023.
MONTEIRO, L.; FERAILLE, A.; SALIBA, J.; YANEZ-GODOY, H.; SAIYOURI, N. Life cycle analysis of sediment valorization by means of geopolymerization from laboratory to industrial scale. Construction and Building Materials, v. 411, p. 134598, 2024.
MORAES, J.C.B.; FONT, A.; SORIANO, L.; AKASAKI, J.L.; TASHIMA, M.M.; MONZÓ, J.; BORRACHERO, M.V.; PAYÁ, J. New use of sugar cane straw ash in alkali-activated materials: A silica source for the preparation of the alkaline activator. Construction and Building Materials, v. 171, p. 611-621, 2018.
MUNIR, Q.; ABDULKAREEM, M.; HORTTANAINEN, M.; KÄRKI, T. A comparative cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of geopolymer concrete produced from industrial side streams in comparison with traditional concrete. Science of The Total Environment, v. 865, p. 161230, 2023.
PATRISIA, Y.; LAW, D.W.; GUNASEKARA, C.; WARDHONO, A. life cycle assessment of alkali-activated concretes under marine exposure in an Australian context. Environmental impact assessment review, v. 96, p. 106813, 2022.
PENADÉS-PLÀ, V.; MARTÍ, J.V.; GARCÍA-SEGURA, T.; YEPES, V. Life-cycle assessment: A comparison between two optimal post-tensioned concrete box-girder road bridges. Sustainability, v. 9, n. 10, p. 1864, 2017.
RAZA, M.H.; KHAN, M.; ZHONG, RY. Strength, porosity and life cycle analysis of geopolymer and hybrid cement mortars for sustainable construction. Science of The Total Environment, v. 907, p. 167839, 2024.
SANDANAYAKE, M.; LAW, D.; SARGENT, P. A new framework for assessing the environmental impacts of circular economy friendly soil waste-based geopolymer cements. Building and environment, v. 210, p. 108702, 2022.
SCRIVENER, K.L.; JOHN, V.M.; GARTNER, E.M. Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry. Cement and concrete Research, v. 114, p. 2-26, 2018.
SHI, X.; ZHANG, C.; LIANG, Y.; LUO, J.; WANG, X.; FENG, Y.; LI, Y.; WANG, Q.; ABOMOHRA, A.E.F. Life cycle assessment and impact correlation analysis of fly ash geopolymer concrete. Materials, v. 14, n. 23, p. 7375, 2021.
TRIPATHY, A.; ACHARYA, P.K. Strength, life cycle analysis, embodied energy and cost-sensitivity assessment of sugarcane bagasse ash-based ternary blends of geopolymer concrete. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, v. 28, n. 3, p. 591-610, 2024.
WANG, A.; FANG, Y.; ZHOU, Y.; WANG, C.; DONG, B.; CHEN, C. Green protective geopolymer coatings: Interface characterization, modification and life-cycle analysis. Materials, v. 15, n. 11, p. 3767, 2022.
XIONG, G.; CUNDY, A.; GUO, X. Utilization of corn cob ash (CCA) to prepare geopolymer grout: Reaction mechanism, crack repair effectiveness and life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 476, p. 143741, 2024.
YUAN, B.; LIANG, J.; HUANG, X.; HUANG, Q.; ZHANG, B.; YANG, G.; WANG, Y.; YUAN, J.; WANG, H.; YUAN, P. Eco-efficient recycling of engineering muck for manufacturing low-carbon geopolymers assessed through LCA: exploring the impact of synthesis conditions on performance. Acta Geotechnica, p. 1-21, 2024.
ZHANG, J.; FERNANDO, S.; LAW, D.W.; GUNASEKURA, C.; SETUNGE, S.; SANDANAYAKE, M.; ZHANG, G. Life cycle assessment for geopolymer concrete bricks using brown coal fly ash. Sustainability, v. 15, n. 9, p. 7718, 2023.
ZHAO, M.N.; GONG, X.Z.; SHI, F.F.; MING, H.F. Life cycle assessment of ready-mixed concrete. In: Materials Science Forum. Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2013. p. 234-238.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Gabriele Gomes Silva, Kalebe Kelvy Freire Ferreira, Luis Felipe Alencar Brandão, Sabino Alves de Aguiar Neto, Marcelo de Souza Picanço, Aedjota Matos Jesus (Autor)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Nos seguintes termos:
- Atribuição - Você deve dar o crédito apropriado , fornecer um link para a licença e indicar se as alterações foram feitas . Você pode fazê-lo de qualquer maneira razoável, mas não de qualquer forma que sugira que o licenciante endossa você ou seu uso.
- Não Comercial - Você não pode usar o material para fins comerciais .
- ShareAlike - Se você remixar, transformar ou construir sobre o material, você deve distribuir suas contribuições sob a mesma licença que o original.
- Sem restrições adicionais - Você não pode aplicar termos legais ou medidas tecnológicas que restrinjam legalmente outros de fazer qualquer coisa que a licença permita.
